Targeted industrial and sectoral subsidies (renewable energy, chip manufacturing, agriculture, green hydrogen, etc).
General government spending as share of GDP, excluding transfers already captured under fiscal.transfer_expansion to avoid double-counting.
Taxation of capital income (dividends, capital gains, inheritance, wealth). Distinct from corporate rate.
Statutory and effective corporate tax rates, treatment of depreciation, and international competitiveness.
Progressivity of the personal income tax schedule, including top marginal rates, bracket spread, and targeted credits (EITC-equivalents).
Size of cash and near-cash transfer programmes (unemployment benefits, means-tested assistance, universal child benefits). Architecturally distinct from forced-saving schemes — see condition welfare_architecture.
Financial-sector regulation — banking separation, capital requirements, cross-border activity rules, derivatives oversight.
Ease of hiring/firing, collective-bargaining scope, minimum wage rigidity, temporary/permanent contract regulation.
Product-market regulation, entry barriers, licensing burdens, network-industry regulation, price controls.
Sector-specific licensing regimes, concentration / quota allocation, state-controlled entry (energy, telecoms, healthcare, banking).
Trade policy openness — tariffs, non-tariff barriers, FTAs, industrial protection.
De jure and de facto independence of the central bank from fiscal authority. Per D.1.5 scope, one of the framework's defensible monetary positions.
Direction of monetary-base expansion decisions relative to trend. Separate from fiscal.transfer_expansion even when correlated.
Independence of the judiciary from executive and legislative encroachment. Specifically captures court-packing, selective prosecution, judicial reshuffles.
Rule of law as institutional substrate — contract enforcement, judicial independence, equal treatment before the law. Upstream of most other axes.
| Year | Movement |
|---|---|
| 1976–1981 | Hussein Onn Barisan Nasional — NEP consolidation (Malaysia) malaysia_hussein_onn_1976_1981 |
| 1981–2003 | Mahathir-era Bumiputera developmentalism (Malaysia) malaysia_mahathir_bumiputera_development_1981_2003 |
| 1981–1988 | Mahathir early era — Look East + heavy industry (Malaysia) malaysia_mahathir_first_term_1981_1988 |
| 1991–1998 | Mahathir Wawasan 2020 Vision and Asian-crisis response (Malaysia) malaysia_mahathir_wawasan_2020_era_1991_1998 |
| 2003–2009 | Abdullah Badawi UMNO/BN — Islam Hadhari and anti-corruption rhetoric administration (2003-2009) malaysia_abdullah_badawi_umno_2003_2009 |
| 2009–2018 | Najib BN — 1MDB kleptocracy, GST, and ETP market opening malaysia_najib_bn_2009_2018 |
| 2020–2021 | Muhyiddin Perikatan Nasional pandemic government (Malaysia, 2020-2021) malaysia_muhyiddin_pn_2020_2021 |
| 2021–2022 | Ismail Sabri UMNO-BN caretaker government (Malaysia, 2021-2022) malaysia_ismail_sabri_umno_2021_2022 |
| 2022 | Anwar Ibrahim Unity Government (Malaysia, 2022-present) malaysia_anwar_unity_2022_present |